James Paul Gee, a prominent linguist and discourse analyst, introduced the concept of Discourses (with a capital “D”) to distinguish between different levels of language use and social practices. According to Gee, Discourses are more than just language; they are socially accepted ways of using language, actions, interactions, beliefs, values, and tools that people use to enact specific socially recognizable identities and activities. Gee’s work emphasizes how language and other semiotic systems contribute to social identity, power relations, and cultural practices.
1. Key Concepts of Gee’s Discourses
Big “D” Discourse vs. Small “d” discourse
Distinguishing Between Language-in-Use and Social Practices
Gee distinguishes between small “d” discourse, which refers to language-in-use or connected stretches of language (like conversations, written texts, etc.), and big “D” Discourse, which encompasses the broader social practices, identities, and ideologies that language and other semiotic resources help to enact and recognize.
- Small “d” discourse: This refers to the actual spoken or written language used in specific contexts. It is the text itself, whether it be a conversation, a speech, a blog post, etc.
- Big “D” Discourse: This concept goes beyond language to include the ways in which people act, interact, and represent themselves in the world. It involves a combination of language, actions, values, beliefs, and social roles that work together to create a recognizable identity or activity.
Example: The language used by medical professionals (small “d” discourse) includes specific terminology, jargon, and formats (e.g., patient charts, diagnostic codes). However, the broader medical Discourse (big “D” Discourse) includes not only this language but also the practices, dress codes (like wearing white coats), the behaviors expected in hospitals, and the authority and identity associated with being a doctor or nurse.
Primary and Secondary Discourses
Understanding Identity Formation Through Discourses
Gee describes Discourses as being either primary or secondary, depending on their role in shaping an individual’s identity and social practices.
- Primary Discourses: These are the Discourses that individuals learn early in life through socialization within their home or immediate community. Primary Discourses form the basis of an individual’s social identity and worldview.
- Secondary Discourses: These are learned later in life, typically through institutions like schools, workplaces, or social organizations. Secondary Discourses are used to navigate public and social spaces outside of the home.
Example: A person’s primary Discourse might include the language, beliefs, and practices they learn from their family, such as speaking a particular dialect or holding certain cultural traditions. Their secondary Discourses could include the professional jargon and behaviors they adopt as a lawyer or engineer, or the academic discourse they learn in school.
Dominant and Non-Dominant Discourses
Power and Access Within Different Social Contexts
Gee also distinguishes between dominant and non-dominant Discourses based on the power and social goods they can access.
- Dominant Discourses: These are Discourses that provide access to social goods, status, and power within a society. Mastery of dominant Discourses often leads to social and economic benefits.
- Non-Dominant Discourses: These are Discourses that do not necessarily provide access to widespread social goods but instead offer solidarity and membership within a specific group or community.
Example: The Discourse of standard academic English in the United States is a dominant Discourse because it provides access to educational and professional opportunities. Conversely, the Discourse of a local hip-hop community might be a non-dominant Discourse, as it primarily offers social membership and identity within that community but does not necessarily translate to broader social power or economic benefits.
Discursive Identity Kits
Tools for Enacting and Recognizing Identities
Gee uses the metaphor of “identity kits” to explain how individuals learn to participate in different Discourses. An identity kit includes the tools (language, behaviors, beliefs, values) necessary to enact a specific identity within a particular Discourse.
- Learning and Enacting Discourses: To successfully engage in a Discourse, individuals need to master the identity kit associated with that Discourse. This means knowing not just what to say, but how to say it, when to say it, and why it matters.
- Social Recognition: Being recognized as a member of a particular Discourse means being able to use its identity kit effectively. If a person cannot use the kit properly, they may be seen as an outsider or as someone who does not fully belong.
Example: A new employee at a law firm needs to learn the identity kit associated with being a lawyer, which includes specific legal terminology, formal writing styles, courtroom etiquette, and professional dress codes. Successfully mastering this kit allows the employee to be recognized as a competent lawyer by colleagues and clients.
Metaknowledge
Understanding and Critiquing Discourses
Gee emphasizes the importance of metaknowledge, which refers to the awareness and understanding of how Discourses function. Metaknowledge allows individuals to critique and manipulate Discourses for various purposes, such as challenging power structures or creating new social identities.
- Critical Awareness: Developing metaknowledge enables individuals to see the ways in which Discourses shape reality, enforce power dynamics, and create social norms. It allows for critical thinking and the ability to question the status quo.
- Discursive Flexibility: Individuals with metaknowledge can navigate multiple Discourses more effectively, knowing when and how to shift between them and how to use different Discourses strategically.
Example: A student who understands both academic and street Discourses has metaknowledge that allows them to navigate school and neighborhood settings effectively. They can switch between formal academic English in class and a more casual, community-based language style with friends. This ability not only helps them succeed in different environments but also enables them to challenge stereotypes about language and identity.
Social Languages
Varieties of Language Within Discourses
Social languages are different varieties of language used to enact specific identities and activities within a Discourse. They reflect the specific ways that different groups use language to achieve their communicative goals, and they vary based on context, audience, and purpose.
- Contextual Language Use: Social languages are tailored to specific contexts, such as the language of a scientist in a lab report versus a scientist giving a public lecture. Both are part of the scientific Discourse but serve different functions and audiences.
- Identity Expression: Social languages also express different identities, such as the difference between a person’s language use when they are at work versus when they are at home with family.
Example: An IT professional might use highly technical language when discussing a project with colleagues (“We need to optimize the SQL queries for better performance”) but switch to a more general, simplified explanation when explaining the same issue to a client who is not familiar with technical jargon (“We need to make the database run faster by changing how it searches for data”). These are different social languages within the broader Discourse of information technology.
2. Examples of Gee’s Discourses in Various Contexts
Example 1: Educational Settings
Navigating Academic Discourses
In educational settings, students and teachers engage in various Discourses that reflect different identities and roles. Understanding and mastering these Discourses is crucial for academic success.
- Academic Discourse: This includes the formal language, structures, and practices associated with scholarly activities, such as writing research papers, participating in academic discussions, and understanding disciplinary conventions.
- Peer Discourse: Students also participate in more informal Discourses with their peers, which may involve slang, humor, and other social practices that build solidarity and group identity.
Example: A student who excels in academic Discourse might write a well-researched, formally structured essay using appropriate academic language. However, that same student might switch to a more casual Discourse when chatting with friends in the cafeteria, using slang and humor to fit in socially. The ability to navigate these different Discourses reflects the student’s competence in both academic and peer identity kits.
Example 2: Professional Environments
Mastering Workplace Discourses
In professional environments, employees must learn and enact the Discourses relevant to their fields. This involves not only mastering the technical language of their profession but also understanding the broader social practices and expectations.
- Corporate Discourse: This might include formal business language, specific jargon, and practices like networking, presenting, or managing projects.
- Informal Workplace Discourse: Employees also engage in more informal Discourses, such as casual conversations in the break room, which help build rapport and foster a sense of community.
Example: An engineer might use technical language when writing a report on a new project, demonstrating their mastery of engineering Discourse. However, during a company retreat, the same engineer might engage in informal conversations about hobbies or family life with colleagues, using a different Discourse that reflects the social side of workplace culture.
Example 3: Cultural and Community Discourses
Engaging with Community-Based Discourses
People engage in various cultural and community Discourses that reflect their identities and values. These Discourses often involve specific ways of speaking, acting, and interacting that are recognized and valued within the community.
- Cultural Discourses: These include language practices, rituals, and traditions that are unique to a particular cultural group and help maintain a sense of identity and belonging.
- Activist Discourses: Communities of activists may engage in Discourses that involve specific terminologies, strategies, and actions aimed at achieving social change.
Example: Members of a local environmental group might use activist Discourse when organizing a protest, which includes specific language about climate justice, slogans for chants, and strategies for civil disobedience. At the same time, they might engage in cultural Discourses during community gatherings, such as sharing stories, music, or traditional foods that reflect their cultural heritage.
Example 4: Digital and Online Discourses
Navigating Digital Identities
Digital platforms and online communities have their own unique Discourses that shape how users interact and express themselves. Mastering these Discourses involves understanding the norms, language styles, and tools of different digital spaces.
- Social Media Discourse: This includes the use of hashtags, memes, emojis, and shorthand language to communicate quickly and effectively in a digital environment.
- Professional Online Discourse: Platforms like LinkedIn require a more formal Discourse that reflects professional identity, including the use of specific industry jargon, networking language, and professional achievements.
Example: On Twitter, a user might engage in a casual, informal Discourse by using hashtags, abbreviations, and humor to connect with others and share their thoughts (“Loving this #ThrowbackThursday! 😂”). However, on LinkedIn, the same person might use a more formal Discourse, highlighting their skills and accomplishments (“Experienced project manager with a demonstrated history of working in the tech industry”). Each platform requires a different identity kit and Discourse.
Example 5: Healthcare Settings
Understanding Medical Discourses
In healthcare settings, both professionals and patients engage in specific Discourses that reflect their roles, identities, and relationships within the medical field.
- Medical Professional Discourse: This involves the use of medical terminology, formal documentation practices, and professional behaviors that signify competence and authority in healthcare.
- Patient Discourse: Patients often use a different Discourse, which may include describing symptoms in layman’s terms, expressing concerns, and seeking reassurance or empathy.
Example: A nurse might use medical Discourse when documenting a patient’s symptoms in a chart (“Patient reports experiencing acute chest pain and dyspnea”). However, when speaking with the patient, the nurse might switch to a more empathetic, layman-friendly Discourse (“I understand that your chest pain is worrying. Let’s make sure we get you feeling better soon”). This ability to switch between Discourses reflects the nurse’s understanding of different social languages and their roles in healthcare.
Conclusion
James Paul Gee’s concept of Discourses offers a comprehensive framework for understanding how language and social practices work together to create and maintain social identities, relationships, and power dynamics. By distinguishing between small “d” discourse and big “D” Discourse, Gee’s framework allows for a nuanced analysis of how language is used to enact and recognize specific identities and activities across various social contexts. Whether in education, professional environments, cultural communities, digital spaces, or healthcare settings, Gee’s Discourses highlight the importance of mastering different identity kits and understanding the social languages that define our interactions and experiences. This approach to discourse analysis provides valuable insights into how we navigate complex social worlds and negotiate our places within them.
Frequently Asked Questions
Big “D” Discourse refers to the broader social practices, identities, and ideologies that language and other semiotic resources help enact and recognize. Small “d” discourse refers to actual language use in specific contexts, such as conversations or written texts.
Primary Discourses are the ones individuals learn early in life through socialization in their home or immediate community, forming the basis of their social identity. Secondary Discourses are acquired later through institutions like schools or workplaces, helping navigate public and social spaces outside the home.
Dominant Discourses provide access to social goods, status, and power within a society, often leading to social and economic benefits. Non-dominant Discourses do not necessarily provide these benefits but offer solidarity and membership within a specific group or community.
Discursive Identity Kits are the tools (language, behaviors, beliefs, values) necessary for enacting a specific identity within a particular Discourse. Mastering these kits allows individuals to be recognized as competent members of that Discourse.
Metaknowledge refers to an awareness and understanding of how Discourses function. It enables individuals to critique, manipulate, and navigate multiple Discourses effectively, using them strategically to challenge power structures or create new social identities.
Social languages are different varieties of language used to enact specific identities and activities within a Discourse. They vary based on context, audience, and purpose, reflecting the specific ways different groups use language to achieve their communicative goals.
In educational settings, students and teachers engage in various Discourses reflecting different identities and roles, such as academic Discourse in formal writing and peer Discourse in informal interactions.
In professional environments, employees must master the Discourses relevant to their fields, including technical language and broader social practices like networking and presenting, to be recognized as competent professionals.
Cultural and community Discourses involve specific ways of speaking, acting, and interacting that are recognized and valued within a community, such as language practices and rituals that maintain cultural identity.
Digital platforms and online communities have unique Discourses that shape how users interact and express themselves, requiring knowledge of specific norms, language styles, and tools of different digital spaces.
In healthcare settings, professionals and patients engage in specific Discourses that reflect their roles, such as the use of medical terminology by professionals and more empathetic language when communicating with patients.
Understanding Gee’s Discourses is crucial because it provides a framework for analyzing how language and social practices create and maintain social identities, relationships, and power dynamics across various contexts.