The ethnography of communication is a method within discourse analysis that focuses on the study of communication practices within specific cultural and social contexts. It was developed by Dell Hymes in the 1960s as a way to integrate linguistic analysis with cultural anthropology. The goal of this approach is to understand how language use is embedded within the cultural norms, values, and social structures of a community. By examining communication in its natural setting, researchers gain insights into the ways in which language is used to create meaning, establish social relationships, and maintain cultural identity.
1. Key Concepts of Ethnography of Communication
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence refers to the ability of individuals to use language appropriately in different social situations. This goes beyond grammatical knowledge to include understanding the social rules and norms governing communication in a particular culture. For example, knowing when to speak, how to address different people, and what is considered polite or impolite are all aspects of communicative competence.
SPEAKING Model
Dell Hymes developed the SPEAKING model as a framework for analyzing communication within its cultural context. The acronym SPEAKING stands for:
- Situation (Setting and Scene): The physical and social context in which the communication takes place. This includes the location, time, and atmosphere of the interaction.
- Participants: The people involved in the communication, including their roles, relationships, and social status.
- Ends: The goals or purposes of the communication, including both the intended outcomes and the effects on the participants.
- Act Sequence: The order and structure of the communicative events, including the flow of conversation and the organization of speech acts.
- Key: The tone, manner, or spirit in which the communication is carried out, such as formal, playful, serious, or sarcastic.
- Instrumentalities: The channels and forms of communication used, such as spoken language, written text, gestures, or electronic media.
- Norms: The social rules and conventions that govern the interaction, including what is considered appropriate behavior in the context.
- Genre: The type of communicative event, such as a conversation, lecture, prayer, or debate.
Speech Community
A speech community is a group of people who share a common set of norms and rules for language use. This concept emphasizes that language is not just a system of symbols but is deeply tied to the social and cultural practices of a community. Members of a speech community have shared understandings of how language should be used in different situations, and these norms are passed down through socialization.
Ethnography
Ethnography, in this context, refers to the systematic study of people and cultures through observation and participation. It involves immersing oneself in the community being studied, often for an extended period, to observe communication practices in their natural setting. Ethnographic methods include participant observation, in-depth interviews, and the collection of naturalistic language data.
2. Examples of Ethnography of Communication in Discourse Analysis
Example 1: Greetings in Different Cultures
In an ethnography of communication study, a researcher might examine how greetings are performed in different cultural contexts. For instance:
- Setting: The researcher observes greetings in a small village in rural Kenya.
- Participants: Villagers greeting each other, including elders, peers, and children.
- Ends: The purpose of the greeting is to establish social bonds, show respect, and inquire about well-being.
- Act Sequence: A typical greeting involves a handshake, followed by a series of questions about health, family, and work.
- Key: The tone is respectful and warm, with an emphasis on politeness and attentiveness.
- Instrumentalities: The greeting is verbal, often in the local language, with accompanying nonverbal gestures like a bow or a handshake.
- Norms: It is expected that younger people greet elders first, and that one must not rush through the greeting process.
- Genre: The greeting can be seen as a ritualistic genre, with a fixed structure that is repeated in daily interactions.
By analyzing these elements, the researcher can understand how greetings function not just as a way to say “hello” but as a crucial practice for maintaining social relationships and cultural norms.
Example 2: Classroom Communication in a Multilingual Setting
Another example might involve examining how communication occurs in a multilingual classroom in a cosmopolitan city:
- Setting: A public school classroom in Toronto, Canada, with students from diverse linguistic backgrounds.
- Participants: The teacher, students from various cultural backgrounds, and possibly a teaching assistant.
- Ends: The goal of the communication is to facilitate learning, manage the classroom, and foster inclusivity.
- Act Sequence: The teacher gives instructions, asks questions, and facilitates discussions. Students respond, ask questions, and participate in group activities.
- Key: The tone is supportive and encouraging, aiming to make all students feel included regardless of their language proficiency.
- Instrumentalities: Communication occurs in English, but students may also use their native languages among peers, and the teacher may use visual aids or gestures to support understanding.
- Norms: There are rules about taking turns in speaking, raising hands to speak, and respecting others’ contributions.
- Genre: The communication genres include instructional talk, group discussions, and individual presentations.
This analysis might reveal how the teacher navigates language barriers, promotes inclusivity, and manages classroom interactions in a way that respects and accommodates the diverse linguistic backgrounds of the students.
Example 3: Ritual Speech in Religious Practices
An ethnography of communication might explore how language is used in religious rituals, such as in a Christian church service:
- Setting: A Sunday morning service at a church.
- Participants: The priest, congregation members, choir, and church officials.
- Ends: The purpose is to worship, convey religious teachings, and foster a sense of community.
- Act Sequence: The service follows a structured sequence, starting with hymns, followed by prayers, readings from the Bible, a sermon, and concluding with a benediction.
- Key: The tone is reverent, solemn, and reflective, with moments of joy during hymns or celebrations.
- Instrumentalities: The service involves spoken word, singing, and sometimes written texts such as prayer books or hymnals.
- Norms: There are expectations for when to stand, sit, respond, and remain silent. There is also a strong emphasis on collective participation.
- Genre: The service includes multiple genres, such as sermons, prayers, hymns, and readings.
Analyzing this ritual speech provides insights into how language reinforces religious beliefs, creates a shared sense of identity, and structures the worship experience.
3. Importance of Ethnography of Communication in Discourse Analysis
Holistic Understanding of Communication
The ethnography of communication provides a holistic understanding of how language functions within its social and cultural context. Rather than focusing solely on linguistic structures, this approach considers the broader communicative practices that give language its meaning.
Cultural Sensitivity
By emphasizing the cultural and social context of communication, the ethnography of communication promotes cultural sensitivity in discourse analysis. It recognizes that communication norms vary widely across different communities and that understanding these norms is crucial for effective analysis.
Real-Life Relevance
This approach grounds discourse analysis in real-life situations, making it highly relevant for understanding how people use language in their everyday lives. It connects linguistic analysis with the lived experiences of individuals within their communities.
Conclusion
The ethnography of communication is a vital approach in discourse analysis that emphasizes the importance of cultural and social context in understanding communication practices. By using frameworks like the SPEAKING model and focusing on concepts such as communicative competence, speech communities, and ethnographic methods, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of how language functions within specific cultural settings. This approach highlights the richness and diversity of human communication and provides valuable insights into how language shapes and is shaped by the cultural and social environments in which it is used.
Frequently Asked Questions
The ethnography of communication is a method within discourse analysis that studies communication practices within specific cultural and social contexts. Developed by Dell Hymes in the 1960s, it integrates linguistic analysis with cultural anthropology to understand how language use is embedded in the cultural norms, values, and social structures of a community.
The SPEAKING model is a framework developed by Dell Hymes to analyze communication within its cultural context. It stands for:
Situation: The physical and social context of the communication.
Participants: The people involved and their roles.
Ends: The goals or purposes of the communication.
Act Sequence: The structure and flow of the communication.
Key: The tone or manner of communication.
Instrumentalities: The channels and forms of communication used.
Norms: The social rules governing the interaction.
Genre: The type of communicative event, such as a conversation or lecture.
Communicative competence refers to the ability to use language appropriately in different social situations. It includes understanding the social rules, norms, and cultural expectations that govern communication, beyond just grammatical correctness.
A speech community is a group of people who share common norms and rules for language use. In the ethnography of communication, the concept emphasizes that language is deeply tied to the social and cultural practices of a community, with shared understandings of how language should be used in various contexts.
Ethnography in communication studies involves the systematic observation and participation in a community to study its communication practices. Researchers immerse themselves in the community, often for extended periods, using methods such as participant observation, in-depth interviews, and the collection of naturalistic language data.
One example could be studying greetings in a rural Kenyan village. Researchers might observe how greetings are performed, considering factors such as the setting, participants, purposes, tone, and social norms. They would analyze how these greetings function to establish social bonds, show respect, and maintain cultural identity.
The ethnography of communication promotes cultural sensitivity by emphasizing that communication norms vary widely across different communities. It encourages researchers to consider the cultural and social context of communication, ensuring that discourse analysis is culturally informed and respectful of diverse communicative practices.
Context is crucial in the ethnography of communication. It includes situational, cultural, and historical factors that shape how communication is understood and practiced. By analyzing context, researchers can gain deeper insights into the meaning and function of discourse within specific cultural settings.
In educational settings, the ethnography of communication can analyze how language is used in multilingual classrooms, exploring how teachers navigate language barriers, promote inclusivity, and manage classroom interactions. It can reveal how communicative practices reflect and accommodate the diverse linguistic backgrounds of students.
The ethnography of communication is significant because it provides a holistic understanding of how language functions within social and cultural contexts. It grounds discourse analysis in real-life situations, making it relevant for understanding everyday communication and the ways language shapes and is shaped by cultural environments.