In discourse analysis, occurrences refer to the frequency and pattern of specific linguistic features, words, phrases, or discourse practices that appear in a given text or set of texts. By examining occurrences, researchers can identify patterns, trends, and regularities in language use that reveal underlying social, cultural, or ideological meanings. Occurrences are critical to understanding how discourse functions because they highlight what is emphasized, what is omitted, and how certain concepts are repeated or circulated within a community.
Occurrences can be studied at different levels, from the repetition of single words or phrases to larger discursive structures, such as narrative patterns or rhetorical strategies. The frequency of these occurrences provides insight into how certain meanings become dominant or marginalized in discourse, shaping social realities and power relations.
1. Key Concepts Related to Occurrences in Discourse Analysis
Lexical Occurrences
Frequency of Words and Phrases
Lexical occurrences refer to the frequency with which certain words or phrases appear in a text or corpus. By studying these occurrences, discourse analysts can understand which ideas or themes are emphasized in a particular discourse. The repeated use of specific terms can reinforce particular meanings and signal the importance of certain concepts.
- Keyword Analysis: A keyword analysis involves identifying words that occur significantly more frequently in a particular text or genre compared to others, revealing the core topics or themes.
- Collocations: Examining how frequently certain words co-occur (collocations) can show the relationships between concepts and the ways in which they are framed together.
Example: In a political speech, frequent occurrences of words like “freedom,” “security,” and “democracy” might reflect the speaker’s emphasis on these concepts as central to their message. By tracking the occurrences of these words, researchers can identify the ideological priorities of the speaker.
Grammatical Occurrences
Repetition of Specific Grammatical Structures
Grammatical occurrences refer to the frequency of particular syntactic structures, such as passive or active voice, question forms, or nominalization. These patterns can reveal how information is presented, how agency is assigned or obscured, and how responsibility is distributed in discourse.
- Passive Voice: The frequent occurrence of passive voice constructions (e.g., “Mistakes were made”) can be used to obscure agency, deflect responsibility, or emphasize the action over the actor.
- Interrogatives and Imperatives: The frequent use of question forms or commands in a text can reveal power dynamics, suggesting authority or control by the speaker.
Example: In corporate communication, repeated occurrences of passive constructions like “decisions were made” or “policies were implemented” can obscure who is responsible for certain actions, reflecting institutional strategies to minimize accountability.
Repetition of Themes
Recurrence of Key Ideas and Topics
The repetition of themes refers to the repeated occurrence of specific ideas, concepts, or topics throughout a text or across multiple texts. Identifying thematic occurrences allows discourse analysts to track which issues are emphasized or marginalized and how certain narratives are constructed and reinforced over time.
- Thematic Frequency: Themes that appear frequently in a discourse often indicate the primary concerns, values, or ideologies of the speaker or the group represented in the text.
- Silences and Absences: The absence or low occurrence of certain themes can be just as telling, revealing what is not being discussed and highlighting gaps or omissions in the discourse.
Example: In media coverage of immigration, the frequent recurrence of themes such as “border security,” “economic burden,” or “cultural integration” reflects how the issue is framed, with certain aspects of immigration emphasized over others (e.g., humanitarian concerns or personal stories).
Rhetorical Occurrences
Repeated Use of Rhetorical Strategies
Rhetorical occurrences refer to the repeated use of rhetorical devices or strategies, such as metaphor, analogy, or hyperbole, in discourse. These occurrences shape how arguments are presented and how emotions, attitudes, or values are conveyed. Repetition of rhetorical strategies can reinforce a particular point of view or create a persuasive narrative.
- Metaphor Frequency: The frequent use of a particular metaphor (e.g., “war on drugs,” “fight against cancer”) can shape how people conceptualize complex social or medical issues.
- Repetitive Structures: Repeated use of parallelism, alliteration, or rhetorical questions can make arguments more memorable or emotionally charged.
Example: In political discourse, the repeated occurrence of war metaphors (e.g., “battle against poverty” or “war on terror”) constructs complex social issues as conflicts, implying that they require aggressive action and a clear enemy to be defeated.
Discourse Structures and Patterns
Recurring Organizational Features
Discourse structures refer to the recurring patterns or frameworks used to organize language and ideas in discourse. These patterns can include narrative structures, argumentation frameworks, or conversational sequences that consistently appear across different interactions or texts. By identifying these recurring structures, researchers can understand how discourse is structured to convey meaning or achieve specific social functions.
- Narrative Structures: The repetition of a specific narrative structure (e.g., problem-solution, cause-effect) can reveal how a speaker or writer organizes their discourse to lead the audience toward a particular interpretation.
- Conversational Patterns: Repeated conversational sequences (e.g., adjacency pairs like question-answer, offer-acceptance) can reflect the social roles and relationships of the participants in a conversation.
Example: In health communication, doctors might frequently use a problem-solution discourse structure when discussing diagnoses and treatments with patients. The recurring structure helps to frame medical issues in a way that presents the doctor as knowledgeable and the treatment as a clear course of action.
Cohesive Occurrences
Repetition of Cohesive Devices
Cohesive occurrences refer to the repeated use of linguistic elements that help to create cohesion and coherence in a text, such as pronouns, conjunctions, or discourse markers. These elements help link ideas and sentences together, making the discourse easier to follow and more cohesive.
- Pronouns and Reference: The frequent use of pronouns (e.g., “we,” “they,” “it”) can reflect the inclusion or exclusion of certain groups and create a sense of collective identity.
- Discourse Markers: Words like “however,” “therefore,” or “in addition” frequently occur to signal logical connections between ideas, contributing to the flow of the argument.
Example: In a company’s annual report, the frequent use of the pronoun “we” can create a sense of unity and collective identity, emphasizing that the company’s achievements are a group effort rather than the work of specific individuals.
Ideological Occurrences
Recurring Language that Reflects Ideology
Ideological occurrences are repeated linguistic choices that reflect the underlying ideologies of a speaker, writer, or institution. These occurrences may include specific terms, metaphors, or rhetorical strategies that promote or reinforce a particular worldview, often subtly shaping how issues are understood.
- Key Terms and Phrases: The frequent occurrence of specific ideological terms (e.g., “freedom,” “equality,” “market efficiency”) can reveal the values or beliefs being promoted in the discourse.
- Reframing: Repeated instances of reframing, where certain issues are consistently presented in specific ways (e.g., immigration framed as a security issue), reflect the ideological stance of the speaker or institution.
Example: In corporate discourse, the frequent occurrence of terms like “efficiency,” “innovation,” and “competition” reflects a neoliberal ideology that values market principles and economic growth as central to success. These terms shape how corporate goals are understood and prioritized.
Quantitative Occurrences
Statistical Patterns in Discourse
Quantitative occurrences involve the statistical analysis of how often certain words, phrases, or structures appear in a corpus or text. This type of analysis is often used in corpus linguistics to reveal patterns in language use that might not be immediately visible through qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis of occurrences can help identify dominant themes or linguistic features in large datasets.
- Word Frequency Counts: Counting the frequency of specific words or phrases in a large corpus can reveal dominant themes or ideas in a particular type of discourse.
- Collocational Analysis: Analyzing how often certain words co-occur with one another can reveal how certain concepts are linked in discourse.
Example: A corpus analysis of political speeches might reveal that words like “security,” “freedom,” and “leadership” occur far more frequently in the speeches of certain political figures. This quantitative data can provide insights into the core themes and values of the political discourse.
2. Methods for Analyzing Occurrences in Discourse Analysis
Corpus Linguistics
Analyzing Large Textual Datasets
Corpus linguistics involves analyzing large collections of texts (corpora) to identify patterns of occurrence in language use. Software tools like AntConc, Sketch Engine, or WordSmith are commonly used to perform frequency analyses, collocation studies, and concordance searches, allowing researchers to quantify occurrences across large datasets.
- Frequency Lists: These lists show how often each word or phrase appears in a text or corpus.
- Collocation Analysis: This involves examining which words frequently occur together and what this reveals about the discourse.
Example: A researcher studying media representations of refugees might collect a corpus of newspaper articles and use software to identify how often terms like “crisis” or “influx” occur in association with “refugees,” revealing patterns in how the issue is framed.
Concordance Analysis
Exploring Word Usage in Context
Concordance analysis is a method that involves examining the occurrences of a specific word or phrase within its immediate context in a text. By looking at how a word is used across different contexts, researchers can uncover patterns in meaning, usage, and association.
- Concordance Lines: These show the occurrences of a word or phrase in its surrounding text, allowing for detailed exploration of how it functions in different parts of the discourse.
- Keyword in Context (KWIC): This is a common concordance format where the keyword appears in the middle of the line, surrounded by the words that occur before and after it.
Example: A discourse analyst might conduct a concordance analysis of the word “freedom” in political speeches to explore how the term is framed in different contexts (e.g., “freedom of speech,” “economic freedom”) and what values are associated with it.
Qualitative Content Analysis
Identifying Recurrent Themes and Concepts
Qualitative content analysis involves identifying the occurrence of certain themes, ideas, or concepts in a text or set of texts. This method is used to examine how often certain topics are discussed, how they are framed, and what patterns of meaning emerge from the data.
- Thematic Coding: Researchers code the data by marking the occurrence of certain themes, allowing for systematic analysis of how often and in what context they appear.
- Pattern Identification: This method helps researchers identify recurring ideas and narrative structures that shape the discourse.
Example: A qualitative content analysis of interviews with climate change activists might reveal the frequent occurrence of themes such as “urgency,” “future generations,” and “political responsibility,” highlighting the key concerns of the activists.
3. Examples of Occurrences in Discourse Analysis
Example 1: Lexical Occurrences in News Coverage
Context: Analyzing the language used in media coverage of natural disasters. Occurrence: Frequent occurrences of terms like “devastation,” “emergency,” and “crisis” frame natural disasters as immediate threats that require urgent responses. This lexical pattern can shape public perception of the severity and importance of the event.
Example 2: Rhetorical Occurrences in Political Speeches
Context: Analyzing the use of metaphors in presidential speeches. Occurrence: The repeated use of war metaphors (“battle,” “fight,” “enemy”) to describe economic challenges emphasizes the need for decisive action and positions the speaker as a leader in a time of conflict. This rhetorical pattern constructs economic issues as conflicts that require leadership and strength.
Example 3: Thematic Occurrences in Environmental Discourse
Context: Studying environmental reports from government agencies. Occurrence: Themes like “sustainability,” “innovation,” and “economic growth” occur frequently in government environmental reports. These recurring themes reflect a discourse that emphasizes balancing economic progress with environmental responsibility, shaping how environmental policies are framed.
Conclusion
Occurrences in discourse analysis refer to the frequency and patterns of specific linguistic features, themes, or rhetorical strategies within a text or corpus. By examining occurrences, researchers can uncover the underlying structures that shape meaning, reveal ideological influences, and track how discourse reinforces or challenges social norms. Whether through quantitative or qualitative methods, studying occurrences is central to understanding how language functions to construct social realities, maintain power relations, and communicate values in various contexts.
Frequently Asked Questions
Occurrences refer to the frequency and pattern of specific linguistic features, words, phrases, or discourse practices in a text or set of texts. By examining these occurrences, discourse analysts can identify patterns and regularities that reveal underlying social, cultural, or ideological meanings.
Occurrences highlight what is emphasized, omitted, or repeated in discourse, offering insights into how certain meanings become dominant or marginalized. This helps in understanding how discourse functions to shape social realities, power relations, and the construction of knowledge within communities.
Lexical occurrences refer to the frequency of specific words or phrases within a text or corpus. By analyzing these, researchers can identify key themes and ideas emphasized in the discourse. For instance, a political speech with frequent occurrences of words like “freedom” and “democracy” can indicate the ideological priorities of the speaker.
Grammatical occurrences involve the repetition of specific syntactic structures, such as passive voice or question forms. These patterns can influence how agency is assigned or obscured, how responsibility is distributed, and how power dynamics are represented. For example, the repeated use of passive voice in corporate communication can obscure accountability.
Thematic occurrences refer to the repetition of specific ideas, concepts, or topics. By identifying these recurring themes, analysts can determine which issues are emphasized or marginalized. For example, frequent themes in media coverage of immigration, such as “border security” or “economic burden,” frame the discourse in specific ways, influencing public perception.
Rhetorical occurrences involve the repeated use of rhetorical strategies like metaphors, analogies, and hyperbole. These repetitions shape how arguments are presented and how emotions and attitudes are conveyed. For instance, the frequent use of war metaphors in political discourse constructs complex social issues as conflicts requiring aggressive action.
Discourse structures refer to recurring organizational patterns like narrative structures or argumentation frameworks. By identifying these patterns, researchers can understand how discourse is structured to convey meaning or achieve specific functions. For example, a problem-solution narrative in health communication helps frame medical issues and present solutions.
Cohesive occurrences refer to the repeated use of linguistic elements that create cohesion in a text, such as pronouns, conjunctions, and discourse markers. These elements help link ideas and maintain coherence. For example, frequent use of “we” in corporate reports fosters a collective identity, emphasizing teamwork and unity.
Ideological occurrences are repeated linguistic choices that reflect the underlying ideologies of a speaker or institution. These can include specific terms or metaphors that subtly shape how issues are understood. For example, the frequent use of terms like “efficiency” and “competition” in corporate discourse reflects a neoliberal ideology.
Quantitative occurrences involve statistical analysis of word, phrase, or structure frequencies within a text or corpus. This approach is used to identify dominant themes and patterns across large datasets. For instance, corpus analysis of political speeches may reveal that terms like “security” and “freedom” occur frequently, indicating core themes in political discourse.
Corpus linguistics involves analyzing large collections of texts to identify patterns of occurrence in language use. Tools like AntConc or Sketch Engine help researchers perform frequency analyses, collocation studies, and concordance searches, revealing patterns and relationships in discourse across extensive datasets.
Concordance analysis examines occurrences of a specific word or phrase within its immediate context in a text. By analyzing how a word functions across different contexts, researchers can uncover patterns in meaning and association, providing insight into the usage and framing of particular terms.
Qualitative content analysis involves identifying the occurrence of themes, ideas, or concepts in texts. Researchers use thematic coding and pattern identification to systematically analyze how often specific topics appear, how they are framed, and what meanings emerge from the discourse.